A Dutch mathematician has investigated probability calculations in mathematical sandpile models. Although the rules of the model are simple, the wide-ranging behavior that emerges from these is ...

The thick outer crust of Earth has zillions of wafer-like pieces interlocked and held together like a cork trapping the molten hot mantle. The blizzard-like forces agitating inside the mantle continue ...

Figure 1: WIM and NFM. The above observations may be explained if faults f1–f7 were formed successively and functioned sequentially through time, with each fault causing concomitant crustal thinning.